Broadly, a citation is a reference A reference, or a references point, is the intensional use of one thing, a point of reference or reference state, to indicate something else[citation needed]. When reference is intended, what the reference points to is called the referent to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source).^{[citation needed]} More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression (e.g. [Newell84]) embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears. Generally the combination of both the in-body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation (whereas bibliographic entries by themselves are not).

A prime purpose of a citation is intellectual honesty; to attribute to other authors the ideas they have previously expressed, rather than give the appearance to the work's readers that the work's authors are the original wellsprings of those ideas.

The forms of citations generally subscribe to one of the generally-accepted citations systems, such as the Harvard, MLA, American Sociological Association (ASA), American Psychological Association (APA), and other citations systems, as their syntactic conventions are widely-known and easily interpreted by readers. Each of these citation systems has its respective advantages and disadvantages relative to the trade-offs of being informative (but not too disruptive) and thus should be chosen relative to the needs of the type of publication being crafted. Editors will often specify the citation system to use.

Bibliographies, and other list-like compilations of references, are generally not considered citations because they do not fulfill the true spirit of the term: deliberate acknowledgment by other authors of the priority of one's ideas.^{[citation needed]}

Concepts

• A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book A book is a set or collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other various material, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side of a leaf is called a page. A book produced in electronic format is known as an electronic book, article A news article is an article published in a print or Internet news medium such as a newspaper, newsletter, news magazine, news-oriented website, or article directory that discusses current or recent news of either general interest or on a specific topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club newsletters, or technology news websites), web page A web page or webpage is a document or resource of information that is suitable for the World Wide Web and can be accessed through a web browser and displayed on a monitor or mobile device, or other published item. Citations should supply sufficient detail to identify the item uniquely.^[1] Different citation systems and styles are used in scientific citation Scientific citation is the process by which conclusions of previous scientists are used to justify experimental procedures, apparatus, goals or theses. Typically such citations establish the general framework of influences and the mindset of research, and especially as "part of what science" it is, and to help determine who conducts the, legal citation, prior art Prior art , in most systems of patent law, constitutes all information that has been made available to the public in any form before a given date that might be relevant to a patent's claims of originality. If an invention has been described in prior art, a patent on that invention is not valid, and the arts The arts is a broad subdivision of culture, composed of many creative endeavors and disciplines. It is a broader term than "art," which as a description of a field usually means only the visual arts. The arts encompasses visual arts, literature and the performing arts - music, drama, dance and film, among others. This list is by no means and the humanities The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences.
• A citation number, used in some citation systems, is a number or symbol added inline and usually in superscript, to refer readers to a footnote or endnote that cites the source. In other citation systems, an inline parenthetical reference is used rather than a citation number, with limited information such as the author's last name, year of publication, and page number referenced; a full identification of the source will then appear in an appended bibliography Bibliography , as a practice, is the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from Greek -λογία, -logia). On the whole, bibliography is not concerned with the literary content of books, but rather the "bookness" of books.[citation needed].

Citation content

Citation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include:

• Book: author(s), book title, publisher, date of publication, and page number(s) if appropriate.^[2][3]
• Journal: author(s), article title, journal title, date of publication, and page number(s).
• Newspaper: author(s), article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number(s) if desired, date of publication.
• Web site: author(s), article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL In computing, a Uniform Resource Locator is a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) that specifies where an identified resource is available and the mechanism for retrieving it. In popular usage and in many technical documents and verbal discussions it is often incorrectly used as a synonym for URI,. The best-known example of a URL is the ", and a date when the site was accessed.
• Play: inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, the latter separated by periods: 4.452 refers to scene 4, line 452. For example, "In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married" (Pushkin 4.452-53).^[4]
• Poem: spaced slashes The slash is a sign, "/", used as punctuation mark and for various other purposes. It is often called a forward slash and many other alternative names are normally used to indicate separate lines of a poem, and parenthetical citations Parenthetical referencing is a citation style in which in-text citations must be enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the paragraph, as opposed to the footnote style usually include the line number(s). For example: "For I must love because I live / And life in me is what you give." (Brennan, lines 15–16).^[4]

Unique identifiers

Along with information Information, in its most restricted technical sense, is an ordered sequence of symbols. As a concept, however, information has many meanings. Moreover, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation such as author(s), date of publication To publish is to make content available to the public . While specific use of the term may vary between country, it is usually applied to text, images, or other audio-visual content on any medium, including paper or Electronic publishing forms such as websites, E-books, Compact Discs and MP3s. The word publication means the act of publishing, and, title A title is a prefix or suffix added to someone's name to signify either veneration, an official position or a professional or academic qualification. In some languages, titles may even be inserted between a first and last name . Some titles are hereditary and page numbers, citations may also include unique In mathematics and logic, the phrase "there is one and only one" is used to indicate that exactly one object with a certain property exists. In mathematical logic, this sort of quantification is known as uniqueness quantification or unique existential quantification identifiers depending on the type of work being referred to.

• Citations of books may include an International Standard Book Number The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, now Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin, for the booksellers and stationers W.H. Smith and others in 1966 (ISBN).
• Specific volumes, articles or other identifiable parts of a periodical, may have an associated Serial Item and Contribution Identifier The Serial Item and Contribution Identifier is a code (ANSI/NISO standard Z39.56) used to uniquely identify specific volumes, articles or other identifiable parts of a periodical. It is “intended primarily for use by those members of the bibliographic community involved in the use or management of serial titles and their contributions” (SICI).
• Electronic documents may have a digital object identifier A digital object identifier is a character string used to uniquely identify an electronic document or other object. Metadata about the object is stored in association with the DOI name and this metadata may include a location, such as a URL, where the object can be found. The DOI for a document is permanent, whereas its location and other metadata (DOI).
• Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identifier (PMID A PMID is a unique number assigned to each PubMed citation of life sciences and biomedical scientific journal articles. The related Pubmed Central archive may additionally assign a separate number, a PMCID (PubMed Central Identifier), normally written with a PMC prefix).

Citation systems

Broadly speaking, there are two citation systems:^[5][6][7]

Note systems

Note systems involve the use of sequential numbers in the text which refer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (a note on a separate page at the end of the paper) which gives the source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full note form or a shortened note form.

For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a notes system without a full bibliography could look like this:

"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance."¹

The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this:

1. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 45–60.

In a paper which contains a full bibliography, the shortened note could look like this:

1. Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying 45–60.

and the bibliography entry, which would be required with a shortened note, would look like this:

Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. On Death and Dying. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

In the humanities, many authors use footnotes or endnotes to supply anecdotal information. In this way, what looks like a citation is actually supplementary material, or suggestions for further reading.^[8]

Parenthetical referencing

Parenthetical referencing Parenthetical referencing is a citation style in which in-text citations must be enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the paragraph, as opposed to the footnote style is where full or partial, in-text citations are enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the paragraph, as opposed to the footnote style. Depending on the choice of style, fully cited parenthetical references may require no end section. Alternately a list of the citations with complete bibliographical references may be included in an end section sorted alphabetically by author's last name.

This section may be known as:

• References
• Bibliography
• Works cited
• Works consulted

Citation styles

Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the Humanities and the Sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems.^[7] Others, such as MLA The MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (2008) is the third edition of The MLA Style Manual, first published by the Modern Language Association of America in 1985. It is an academic style guide widely used in the United States, Canada, and other countries, providing guidelines for writing and documentation of research in the and APA American Psychological Association Style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Designed to ensure clarity of communication, the rules are designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision." The Publication Manual of the American styles, specify formats within the context of a single citation system.^[6] These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles.^[9][10][11] The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to their style.

A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs; consequently, a number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long-established as to have their own citation methods too: Stephanus pagination Stephanus pagination is the system of reference and organization used in modern editions and translations of Plato . Plato's (and Plutarch's) works are divided into numbers, and each number will be divided into equal sections a, b, c, d and e. As such, this system is often used to reference Plato - for example, Symposium 172a would refer the for Plato Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. Plato was originally a; Bekker numbers The Corpus Aristotelicum is the collection of Aristotle's works that have survived from antiquity through Medieval manuscript transmission. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's nineteenth- for Aristotle Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most; citing the Bible by book, chapter and verse; or Shakespeare William Shakespeare [a] was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon".[b] His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays,[c] 154 sonnets, two long notation by play, act and scene.

Some examples of style guides include:

Humanities

• The American Political Science Association The American Political Science Association is a professional association of political science students and scholars in the United States. Founded in 1903, it publishes three academic journals (American Political Science Review, Perspectives on Politics, and PS: Political Science & Politics). APSA Organized Sections publish or are associated (APSA) relies on the Style Manual for Political Science, a style often used by political science scholars and historians. It is largely based on that of the Chicago Manual of Style.
• The ASA style ASA style is a widely accepted format for writing university research papers that specifies such the arrangement and punctuation of footnotes and bibliographies. Standards for ASA style are specified in the ASA style guide, which is published by the American Sociological Association, the main scholarly organization for academic sociologists in the of American Sociological Association The American Sociological Association , founded in 1905 as the American Sociological Society (ASS), is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the discipline and profession of sociology by serving sociologists in their work and promoting their contributions to serve society. is one of the main styles used in sociological publications.
• The Chicago Style (CMOS) was developed and its guide is The Chicago Manual of Style. Some social sciences and humanities scholars use the nearly identical Turabian style. Used by writers in many fields.
• The Columbia Style was made by Janice R. Walker and Todd Taylor to give detailed guidelines for citing internet sources. Columbia Style offers models for both the humanities and the sciences.
• Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace by Elizabeth Shown Mills covers primary sources not included in CMOS, such as censuses, court, land, government, business, and church records. Includes sources in electronic format. Used by genealogists and historians.^[12]
• Harvard referencing (or author-date system) is a specific kind of parenthetical referencing. Parenthetical referencing is recommended by both the British Standards Institution and the Modern Language Association. Harvard referencing involves a short author-date reference, e.g., "(Smith, 2000)", being inserted after the cited text within parentheses and the full reference to the source being listed at the end of the article.
• MLA style was developed by the Modern Language Association and is most often used in the arts and the humanities, particularly in English studies, other literary studies, including comparative literature and literary criticism in languages other than English ("foreign languages"), and some interdisciplinary studies, such as cultural studies, drama and theatre, film, and other media, including television. This style of citations and bibliographical format uses parenthetical referencing with author-page (Smith 395) or author-[short] title-page (Smith, Contingencies 42) in the case of more than one work by the same author within parentheses in the text, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources on a "Works Cited" page at the end of the paper, as well as notes (footnotes or endnotes). See The MLA Style Manual and The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, particularly Citation and bibliography format.^[13]
• The MHRA Style Guide is published by the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) and most widely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. It is available for sale both in the UK and in the United States. It is similar to MLA style, but has some differences. For example, MHRA style uses footnotes that reference a citation fully while also providing a bibliography. Some readers find it advantageous that the footnotes provide full citations, instead of shortened references, so that they do not need to consult the bibliography while reading for the rest of the publication details.^[14]

In some areas of the Humanities, footnotes are used exclusively for references, and their use for conventional footnotes (explanations or examples) is avoided. In these areas, the term "footnote" is actually used as a synonym for "reference", and care must be taken by editors and typesetters to ensure that they understand how the term is being used by their authors.

Law

• The Bluebook is a citation system traditionally used in American academic legal writing, and the Bluebook (or similar systems derived from it) are used by many courts.^[15] At present, academic legal articles are always footnoted, but motions submitted to courts and court opinions traditionally use inline citations which are either separate sentences or separate clauses.
• The legal citation style used almost universally in Canada is based on the Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (aka McGill Guide), published by McGill Law Journal.^[16]

Sciences, mathematics, engineering, physiology, and medicine

• The American Chemical Society style, or ACS style, is often used in chemistry and other physical sciences. In ACS style references are numbered in the text and in the reference list, and numbers are repeated throughout the text as needed.
• In the style of the American Institute of Physics (AIP style), references are also numbered in the text and in the reference list, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed.
• Styles developed for the American Mathematical Society (AMS), or AMS styles, such as AMS-LaTeX, are typically implemented using the BibTeX tool in the LaTeX typesetting environment. Brackets with author’s initials and year are inserted in the text and at the beginning of the reference. Typical citations are listed in-line with alphabetic-label format, e.g. [AB90]. This type of style is also called a "Authorship trigraph."
• The Vancouver system, recommended by the Council of Science Editors (CSE), is used in medical and scientific papers and research.
  • In one major variant, that used by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), citation numbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All bibliographical information is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the document, next to the respective citation number.
  • The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) is reportedly the original kernel of this biomedical style which evolved from the Vancouver 1978 editors' meeting.^[17] The MEDLINE/PubMed database uses this citation style and the National Library of Medicine provides "ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals -- Sample References".^[18]
• The style of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), or IEEE style, encloses citation numbers within square brackets and arranges the reference list by the order of citation, not by alphabetical order.
• Pechenik Citation Style is a style described in A Short Guide to Writing about Biology, 6th ed. (2007), by Jan A. Pechenik.^[19]
• In 2006, Eugene Garfield proposed a bibliographic system for scientific literature, to consolidate the integrity of scientific publications.^[20]

Social sciences

• The style of the American Psychological Association, or APA style, published in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, is most often used in social sciences. APA style uses Harvard referencing within the text, listing the author's name and year of publication, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources at the end of the paper on a References page
• The American Political Science Association publishes both a style manual and a style guide for publications in this field.^[21]
• The American Anthropological Association utilizes a modified form of the Chicago Style laid out in their Publishing Style Guide

See also

• Acknowledgment (creative arts)
• Bible citation
• Case citation
• Citation creator
• Citation signal
• Citationality
• Credit (creative arts)
• Cross-reference
• Scholarly method
• Source evaluation
• Style guide

Footnotes

1. ^ "Library glossary". Benedictine University. August 22, 2008. http://www.ben.edu/library/help/glossary.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
2. ^ Long Island University.
3. ^ Duke University Libraries 2007.
4. ^ ^{a b} Brigham Young University 2008.
5. ^ University of Maryland, College Park 2006.
6. ^ ^{a b} Yale University 2008.
7. ^ ^{a b} Colorado State University 2008.
8. ^ "How to Write Research Papers with Citations - MLA, APA, Footnotes, Endnotes". http://www.studenthandouts.com/citations.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-31.
9. ^ California State University 2007.
10. ^ Lesley University 2007.
11. ^ Rochester Institute of Technology 2003.
12. ^ Mills, Elizabeth Shown. Evidence explained : citing history sources from artifacts to cyberspace (Baltimore:Genealogical Pub. Co., 2007).
13. ^ The field of Communication (or Communications) overlaps with some of the disciplines also covered by the MLA and has its own disciplinary style recommendations for documentation format; the style guide recommended for use in student papers in such departments in American colleges and universities is often The Publication Manual of the APA (American Psychological Association); designated for short as "APA style".
14. ^ The 2nd edition (updated April 2008) of the MHRA Style Guide is downloadable for free from the Modern Humanities Research Association official Website.
15. ^ Martin 2007.
16. ^ Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (Cite Guide). McGill Law Journal. Updated October 2008. Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
17. ^ Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals.
18. ^ International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. "ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals -- Sample References".
19. ^ Pechenik Citation Style QuickGuide (PDF). University of Alberta, Augustana Campus, Canada. Web. November 2007.
20. ^ Garfield, Eugene (2006). "Citation indexes for science. A new dimension in documentation through association of ideas". International Journal of Epidemiology 35 (5): 1123–1127. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl189. PMID 16987841.
21. ^ Stephen Yoder, ed. (2008). The APSA Guide to Writing and Publishing and Style Manual for Political Science. Rev. ed. August 2006. APSAnet.org Publications. Retrieved on 2009-02-05.

References

• "ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Guidelines Quick Guide". Berkeley.edu. 2006. http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/CHEM/acsstyle.html. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
• "Anatomy of a Citation". LIUNet.edu. http://www.liunet.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workbook/evaluate.htm#citing. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
• "APA Citation Format". Lesley.edu. 2005. http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa.html. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
• "APA Citation Format". RIT.edu. 2003. http://wally.rit.edu/pubs/guides/apa.html. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
• Armstrong, J Scott (July 1996). "The Ombudsman: Management Folklore and Management Science - On Portfolio Planning, Escalation Bias, and Such". Interfaces (Providence: Institute of Management Sciences) 26 (4): 28–42. OCLC 210941768. http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/armstrong2/armstrong-managementfolklore.pdf.
• "ASME Journals Digital Submission Tool". ASME.org. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. http://journaltool.asme.org/Help/AuthorHelp/WebHelp/JournalsHelp.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
• "Book with a Single Author". Duke.edu. 2007. http://library.duke.edu/research/citing/workscited/booksingle.html. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
• "CBE - Council of Biology Editors (Citation/Sequence System)". ColoState.edu. 2008. http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/researchsources/documentation/cbe_citation/index.cfm. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
• "Citation Formats & Style Manuals". CSUChico.edu. 2007. http://www.csuchico.edu/lref/newciting.html. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
• "Citation Systems and Style Manuals". UMD.edu. 2006. http://www.lib.umd.edu/guides/style_manuals.html. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
• "How to cite sources in the body of your paper". BYUI.edu. 2008. http://www.byui.edu/english/mlaguide/MLA_intext_citation.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
• "IEEE Editorial Style Manual". IEEE.org. 2007. http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_iportals/iportals/publications/authors/transjnl/stylemanual.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
• Martin, Peter W (May 2007). "Introduction to Basic Legal Citation (LII 2007 ed.)". Cornell.edu. http://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
• "MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses". MHRA.org.uk. Modern Humanities Research Association. 2008. http://www.mhra.org.uk/Publications/Books/StyleGuide/. Retrieved 2009-02-05. (2nd ed.)
• Pechenik, Jan A (2004). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology (5th ed.). New York: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 0321159810. OCLC 52166026.
• "Why Are There Different Citation Styles?". Yale.edu. 2008. http://www.yale.edu/bass/writing/sources/kinds/principles/why.html. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
• Wright, Malcolm; Armstrong, J Scott (March 2008). "The Ombudsman: Verification of Citations: Fawlty Towers of Knowledge?" ( – ^{Scholar search}). Interfaces (Providence: Institute of Management Sciences) 38 (2): 125–139. doi:10.1287/inte.1070.0317. OCLC 229821277. http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/Marketing_Content_Management/Marketing_files/Publication_Files/Citations-Interfaces.pdf.

External links

Guidelines

• Citing Government Documents/Government Agency Style Manuals, University of North Texas Libraries.
• Document it Citation and Referee AMS, and the AMSRefs package.
• Guide to Citation Style Guides
• ONLINE! Citation Styles (An online guide to different citation formats)
• "What is citation?", Turnitin.com
• "Cater all your Citation needs?", Makecitation.com

Examples

• Illustrated examples, generated using BibTeX, of several major styles, including more than those listed above.
• PDF file bibstyles.pdf illustrates how several bibliographic styles appear with citations and reference entries, generated using BibTeX.

Style guides

• AMA Citation Style
• How to write footnotes, endnotes and electronic references in a proper format
• Swarthmore library's Guide to Citation Styles for Science and Humanities.

Other online resources

• thehistorysite.org Online resources for historical research and writing.

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